Polygamy: Tradition, law, and social change

Dr Jintu Sarma

(Asstt. Professor at Guwahati College)

Polygamy (the practice of  having more than one spouse) represents a fascinating intersection of deep-rooted custom, evolving legal frameworks, and ongoing social reform in India. While legally prohibited for most communities in India, it retains a distinct and significant presence in the country’s Northeast (NE), particularly within certain Scheduled Tribe (ST) populations. There is practice, primarily taking the form of polygyny (one man having multiple wives), which carries complex social, economic, and emotional impacts, which are currently being challenged by progressive legislation and women’s movements.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, outlawed and criminalized polygamy for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs. Similarly, it is prohibited for Christians and Parsis under their respective laws. The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937, as generally interpreted, allows a Muslim man to have up to four wives simultaneously. The Northeast presents a complex legal scenario due to the constitutional protection afforded to tribal customs. Many tribal communities in the NE states traditionally practised polygamy, and their customary laws were often exempt from the monogamy mandate of central acts. National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data has consistently pointed to a higher prevalence of polygyny in the Northeast, particularly among tribal communities, compared to the national average. NFHS (2019-21) data confirms the Northeast as a regional outlier in the context of polygyny. While the national prevalence of polygynous marriages among married women aged 15-49 stood at a low 1.4%, several NE states reported rates significantly above this average. Meghalaya stands out with the highest prevalence in the country, recording 6.1%, followed by Mizoram (4.1%), Sikkim (3.9%), and Arunachal Pradesh (3.7%). Furthermore, the data points to extreme variations even within the region. An analysis of district-level data from NFHS-5 shows that 14 out of the 20 districts in India with the highest rates of polygyny are concentrated in the Northeast.

Meghalaya’s East Jaintia Hills, for instance, recorded an exceptionally high prevalence of 20%, illustrating that the practice is not uniformly distributed but highly localized, often correlating with specific ethnic or tribal pockets. The arguments for the prevalence of polygyny in the tribal communities of the NE are varied: Traditionally, multiple wives were seen as an asset, contributing to the household’s labour pool in agrarian and shifting cultivation economies, leading to increased wealth and status for the man. For many communities, particularly the Nyishi of Arunachal Pradesh, the number of wives was, and sometimes still is, a direct indicator of a man’s social prestige and economic power. The need to secure a male heir or address the infertility of the first wife is often cited as a reason for a subsequent marriage. Practised historically and currently across diverse cultures, religious groups, and geographic regions, the impact of polygamy on the functioning, stability, and equality of a society is complex and subject to intense scholarly debate. While proponents occasionally point to social support and reproductive benefits, the weight of sociological and economic evidence suggests that the pervasive effect of state-sanctioned or customary polygyny is the reinforcement of systemic gender inequality and the potential for increased social instability. One of the most significant and widely documented impacts of polygyny is its effect on the marriage market and social stratification. Since a few men monopolise several wives, the practice inherently creates a large surplus of unmarried, low-status men. This dynamic exacerbates economic inequality, as only men with sufficient wealth or power can afford the high bride prices and household costs associated with maintaining multiple unions. The resulting concentration of reproductive opportunities and resources among an elite group has been theorised to lead to higher rates of relative deprivation among non-elite men. In some historical and sociological contexts, this imbalance has been linked to increased social unrest, conflict, and violence, as marginalized men are disproportionately available for mobilisation in group conflicts. Economically, the effect of polygyny is often characterised by resource dilution and diminished national development. On a household level, research in various developing nations suggests that children in polygynous families are at a higher risk for poor nutritional status and lower academic achievement compared to their peers in monogamous families, primarily due to the intense competition for the father’s finite resources and attention. On a macro level, the economic requirement to pay a substantial bride-price to acquire additional wives can divert capital away from productive investments, thus acting as a drag on savings and broader economic growth. Consequently, regions where polygyny is widely practised often exhibit lower per capita GDP, a correlation that suggests the practice inhibits overall economic modernization and well-being. Furthermore, the structure of polygynous families often introduces severe challenges to psychological and familial stability. The core issue is the structural inequality inherent in the arrangement, which is frequently cited as a driver of poor mental health outcomes. Studies consistently show that women in polygynous marriages, particularly first wives, report significantly higher rates of depression, anxiety, and loneliness and lower marital satisfaction compared to their monogamously married counterparts.

This distress often stems from the necessity of competing with co-wives for the husband’s affection, time, and financial support. Although some cultural narratives highlight the benefits of co-wives sharing labour and providing a supportive social network for child-rearing, this positive outcome is often overshadowed by chronic intra-household conflict and rivalry, which can negatively affect the emotional development and mental stability of the children involved. The impact of polygamy on society is overwhelmingly shaped by the dynamics of polygyny, which tends to reinforce patriarchal norms and create vertical inequality among men while fundamentally limiting the autonomy and resources available to women and children. While cultural and economic factors can occasionally lead to adaptive benefits, such as pooling labour or protecting vulnerable widows, these are often contingent on high levels of fairness and resource provision from the husband. Ultimately, the practice imposes significant socio-economic costs by impeding gender equality, fuelling resource competition, and correlating with adverse outcomes for mental health and child welfare. Addressing the negative societal impacts of polygamy requires a focus on structural reforms that prioritize equal rights and financial independence for all individuals within a marital union.